Presidents Eisenhower and Johnson the Civil Rights Movement

Table of Contents Introduction Historical background Eisenhower and Civil Rights Movement Lyndon Johnson and Civil Rights Movement Conclusion Notes Works Cited Introduction Presidents Dwight Eisenhower and Lyndon Johnson played crucial roles in the Civil Rights movements in the USA. The African Americans and other minority groups in the US faced discrimination. For instance they were not allowed to vote.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Presidents Eisenhower and Johnson: the Civil Rights Movement specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More They were denied freedom to mix and mingle with Native Americans in both public and social gatherings. To handle these challenges needed resolute leadership. Eisenhower’s presidency saw the introduction of the Civil Rights Act in 1957. Lyndon Johnson, on the other hand, equally grappled with this issue early enough. Historical background The social historians have managed to cog ently present the politics that surrounded the civil rights movement. They particularly focused on retelling the predicament of the underclass and their strategies of progress over time.1 Ezra has adequately managed to present the struggle through which the African Americans went through to gain civil liberties and recognition in the American society.He further avers that although civil rights movement has been greatly highlighted, it just marked a lower position of the road to freedom (Ezra 5). Actually, the African Americans started their struggle for freedom many years. The struggle could be traced all the way to the Atlantic Slave trade. He has successfully illustrated what the slaves did to express their resistance to slave trade. For instance, he says that the slaves never wanted to abandon their heritage (Ezra 38). They married fellow slaves and went ahead and had families. They have resisted through a myriad of ways such as feigning illness, spoiling the tools meant to be us ed for working and to some extent would even capture and murder their captors. It is against this backdrop that 1954 to 1968 came to be greatly associated with civil rights movement. It was a momentous era in the African Americans’ struggle for freedom as it led to substantial gains in the fight for equal rights. The era was one characterized by heightened activism. Secondly, the era gained the support of non blacks. The whites also sympathised with the cause of the struggle. The movement also managed to gain the support of the aims of government, the executive, legislature, and even the judiciary (Ezra 6). The executive particularly did so through issuing of speeches of civil rights movement.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Fourthly, the civil rights movement managed to receive international attention and support. Finally, the media was not left behind. It played a pivotal role in projecting the civil rights movement as one was putting the American moral conscience to question. Lyndon Johnson’s participation in the Civil Rights movement had started earlier, though covertly. His experience of teaching in a segregated school made him develop a deep conviction that segregation was morally wrong. He always thought of once transforming America into a great society, and when he thought of segregation, he felt that America was not pursuing that direction of greatness. He had worked with the segregated minority groups since 1928. As an elementary school teacher in a segregated Mexican American only school, Johnson saw how the small community was wallowing in abject poverty and illiteracy. They also lived in squalid conditions. By this he felt that the situation could only be remedied through provision of education. Eisenhower and Civil Rights Movement Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953-1961) approached the Civil Rights movement with measured caution (Jacoway 65). H is support for the Civil Rights movement was measured so as he could not seem to antagonize his voting base. Eisenhower’s contribution towards civil rights movement has been mired with controversy. Many analysts felt that he stood on both sides of the fence. All in all, his action or inaction had crucial contribution to the civil rights movement in the US. Many analysts have seen that Eisenhower tried all ways possible to avoid issues that had to do with race conflict. But this could not go on for long as he got spurred into action in the Brown vs. Board of Education in 1954.2 The Supreme Court had ruled that segregation that occurred in the public schools was unconstitutional. It is believed that this Supreme Court ruling did not go down well with Eisenhower (Jacoway 70). Consequently, he declined to sanction its endorsement. Most opponents of desegregation got their agitation bolstered by this silence from the highest office. As such, most whites from the south formed counc ils whose sole purpose was to hinder or sabotage any compliance to the court’s ruling through various ways including violence and intimidation. Other groups resorted to political action to discourage compliance.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Presidents Eisenhower and Johnson: the Civil Rights Movement specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Though Eisenhower had not been publicly associated with the Civil Rights Movement, the Little Rock incident made him respond. Initially, his belief was that no one should force the other person to change beliefs and convictions through legislation. He thought that such change could only be occasioned through their heart. In other words, he did not want to support legislation for Civil Rights but the event at Little Rock school formed a turning point on the whole view. Eisenhower, though opposed to the ruling of the court, was duty bound by the constitution to respect it. So , when white mobs prevented some black students from joining Little Rock High school, Eisenhower had to dispatch the army to guard and make sure the black students were protected the whole year (Jacoway 44). Even Governor Faubus reluctantly agreed to let the African American students enrol in the school. The troops stayed at the school for the whole year and in 1958 Central High School in Little Rock produced the first African American graduate. In this situation it can be seen that Eisenhower contributed towards the initial implementation of desegregation in the American public schools. This he did but not without constant interruption. For example, we are told that in 1958 Governor Faubus, in a bid to sabotage desegregation, went ahead and closed all public schools. This was solely aimed at stopping the integration program that was already underway. Another area in which Eisenhower contributed greatly towards civil Rights Movement was legislation. For instance, it is recorded that he was the one who first signed civil rights legislation. The law required that the federal government protects all voting rights of individuals regardless of colour, creed etc.3 The situation was particularly worse in the Southern states: African Americans had completely been disenfranchised – their voting rights had been denied despite the constitution having stated otherwise. The states managed to prevent them through roadblocks such as subjecting them to literacy tests and even poll taxes licence for letting them vote.Advertising Looking for essay on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More But it should not also be forgotten that the jury of the matter was that the jury was predominantly white hence there was no hope of a fair verdict. Eisenhower did not tire in signing legislation. For example, in 1960, he further went ahead and signed his second Civil Rights law that was a further advancement over the previous one (Jacoway 86). In other cases, the president invoked executive authority to further champion civil rights as envisaged in the constitution. In a nutshell, Eisenhower valued moderation as he went about the civil rights issue. For example, he urged both sides to go slow. He urged those who wanted the rights to be implemented to go slow as well as those who were opposed to desegregation. To him the both sides were exhibited extremist tendencies in their approach, something he seemed to abhor. Lyndon Johnson and Civil Rights Movement Johnson’s soft spot for civil rights movement is well documented. He started implementing his aspirations at the formative stage before he even became president. He recognised the effect of racism even while serving as President John Kennedy’s Vice President (Kirk 101). He appreciated that the blacks had played a crucial role in World War II; hence the need for the state to treat them well otherwise he thought that could result in a bloody revolution. After assuming the US Presidency, in 1963 after Kennedy’s assassination, Johnson set out his vision of transforming America into a â€Å"Great Society†. He felt that this could only be achieved through eradication of poverty and racial discrimination. During this tenure the Civil Rights Bill was passed into law. Some southerners were not amused with Johnson’s interest in Civil Rights by seeing to it that the Bill was passed in its entirety without any form of dilution (Kirk 97). He devoted all his energy and resources to achieve this end. However, Johnson seemed to receive a backlash from the whites and even the blacks, who tho ught the Bill was not comprehensive enough. To further ensure the right to decent living and education, Johnson felt that his Elementary and Secondary Education Act in 1965 was a solution towards helping the poor out of the squalid conditions in the ghettos. True to his wishes, very poor states like Mississippi received uplifting federal funding that led to a large number of African Americans accessing higher education. The African American students quadrupled within a very short time. Though Johnson feared opposition from Congress, he further pushed the voting Rights Act of 1965. The political face of the South changed dramatically as it became integrated. Johnson succeeded in his legislative journey because of his persuasive nature and strong desire and determination to right all the wrongs that had bedevilled the minority in the country. The voting Rights Act actually helped the African Americans and other minority groups in the US to vote freely without any hindrance. Furthermor e, the Acts made the African Americans gain economic and political power (Kirk 77). Despite all the work that Johnson had done, there were riots in Watts, Los Angeles. These riots had been occasioned by some element of de-facto discrimination that continued to thrive. This type of discrimination was one that was not easy to legislate against. The Africans further rioted till 1966. Riots occurred in more than 38 cities in America. All in all, Johnson can be said to have played a very important role in the civil rights movement. This could be seen in his success in putting a stop to de jure kind of discrimination. Now African Americans could vote freely and even get voted for during elections. In the field of education his Education Acts acted as catalysts for disaggregation in schools and other educational institutions. Even in his other Acts, Johnson managed to greatly improve the economic stature of the Africans as even their unemployment rates reduced by over 34%. Conclusion The h istorians have successfully managed to analyze the civil rights movement. From their expose, they have managed to show or reveal how presidents Eisenhower and Johnson were faced with the dilemma to pursue civil rights while at the same time deeply worried about losing votes from opposing sides. All in all, they finally managed to promote civil rights. Notes See U.S. Commission on Civil Rights Report, Justice (1961). Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954). See William L. Taylor, The Passion of My Times: An Advocate’s Fifty-Year Journey in the Civil Rights Movement (Carroll Graf Publishers, 2004), p. xv. Works Cited Ezra, Michael. Civil Rights Movement: People and Perspectives. California: ABC-CLIO, 2009. Print. Jacoway, Elizabeth. Turn Away Thy Son: Little Rock, the Crisis that Shocked the Nation. New York: Free Press, 2007. Print. Kirk, John. Beyond Little Rock: the Origins and Legacies of the Central High Crisis. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2007. Print. This essay on Presidents Eisenhower and Johnson: the Civil Rights Movement was written and submitted by user Tristen C. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

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biology of plant essays I believe that some plants produce as much heat for their weight as birds do, which are the greatest heat producers of all. It is even harder to believe that some are able to thermoregulate, which means that they actually alter their heat production to keep their temperature constant in fluctuating air temperatures. This is similar to what mammals do. The article I am reviewing tells about few a plants that do this, and how they do it. There are only three plants which have yet been shown to regulate their temperature. They are the Philodendron selloun, the Skunk Cabbage, and the Sacred Lotus. The most extensive testing has been done on the P. selloun. The earliest testing aimed to do little more than determine whether the inflorescence actually had become hot. In the experiment spadices were impaled with temperature probes into the plant and the probes were connected to a machine that recorded the temperature continuously. During the measurement period the temperature outside averaged 20 degrees Celsius and the temperature in the plant remained 20 degrees higher. This proved that the inflorescence was hotter than its environment. The next experiment aimed to show the range of the P. selloun's heat producing capabilities. Some specimens were cut and put into indoor cabinets where the temperature could be varied. The reason the plants were placed in indoor cabinets was so that the plants rate of heat production could be measured by the expedient of measuring its rate of consumption of oxygen. Then the inflorescences were examined at air temperatures from low freezing to temperatures that are uncomfortably hot for humans. At the coldest extremes some of the inflorescences could not heat up at all. But their temperatures went to as high as 38 degrees Celsius when the environment temperature was still 4 degrees C. The cuttings became hotter as the air temperature rose further. The inflorescences peaked at 46 degrees C w...

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Impact of Web-Based Instruction (WBI) in Schools

Impact of Web-Based Instruction (WBI) in Schools Nowadays the use of Web-Based Instruction (WBI) has significant impacts on every aspect of our lives. In the context of education industry more and more school and education institutions have come to realize the potential impact of using the WBI in the classroom as part of the learning environment. Despite the many challenges yet to be overcome, the advantages of WBI have been widely recognized. Some of these major advantages include flexibility and broader accessibility (Lee, Cheung, Chen, 2005), improved students performance (Alavi, 1994), reflective evaluation of the learning experience (Hiltz, 1995), and higher computer self-efficacy (Piccoli, Ahmad, Ives, 2001). Academic institutions also benefit in terms of cost reductions and increasing revenues (Saadà © and Bahli, 2005). 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In fact, teachers utilization of innovative technologies has remained low (Surry and Land, 2000). The integration of technology such as WBI into the classroom has remained low and educational technology use has been minimal, infrequent, and limited as an add-on rather than as indispensable to teaching and learning (Becker, 1991). Surry and Ely (2002) diagnosed, as a reason for this lack of utilization, which instructional designers had focused on developing. They added that there is no guarantee for diffusion of instructional technologies itself. While the diffusion and implementation of innovation is important. Rogers (1995) and Stockdill and Morehouse (1992) described, it is a complex process that is influenced by many factors. Technological superiority is only one of a number of factors that influence a persons decision about whether or not to adopt an innovation. A more complex interaction of social, economic, organizational, and individual factors influence which technologies are adopted and how much they are used after they have been adopted. As one of the major areas of diffusion of innovation study, instructional technologies have focused on the identification of the significant factors contributing to educational technology implementation. Most studies of this issue have been simply investigating factors or have confined the research scope to only examine either the psychological perspective of factors (Marcinkiewicz, 1994; McKinney, Sexton, Meyerson, 1999; Olech, 1997), or the external or environmental perspective of factors (Daugherty and Funke, 1998; Groves Zemel, 2000), disregarding other relevant variables. Daugherty and Funkes (1998) study focused only on the teachers perceived supports or incentives as factors influencing the use of Web-Based instruction. They surveyed school teachers and students involved in Web-Based instruction on the advantages, disadvantages, and general effectiveness of using the Internet as a teaching and learning tool. Teachers reported the lack of technical support, lack of software or adequate equipment, lack of teachers or administrative support, the amount of preparation time, and student resistance are barriers to use Web-Based instruction. According to Hamilton and Thompson (1992) in reality it is assumed that a person will be influenced by psychological and also environmental factors at the same time for a decision to adopt or utilize an innovation and Ely (1999) identified eight environmental conditions. His approach recognizes that the characteristics of adopters and the innovation are not the only factors influencing its diffusion. His research suggests that the environment such as supports and incentives in which the innovation is to be introduced can play an equally important role in determining a change efforts success. In the this study, the three categories of variables known to relate to the level of innovation use are identified based on the diffusion and innovation models. First, in the area of personal characteristics, previous experience and self-efficacy are selected as key variables. Second, complexity and relative advantage in this study are selected for the area of perceived attributes of innovation. Last, for the area of perception of influence and support from the environment, supports, and time are selected. To go beyond the single-equation approach using multiple regressions and address the associated limitations, structural equation modeling (SEM) will be used. Using this technique, indirect effects among variables are identified in the model that is specified from the literature and theories by the researcher. These indirect effects, when added to the direct effects in the model, allow the determination of total causal effects. Research Objective: Identifying the direct, indirect and total effects of the identified predictor variables (self-efficacy, relative advantage, complexity, computer experience, supports and time) on criterion variable (level of WBI use). Research Questions: What are the direct, indirect and total effects of the identified predictor variables (self-efficacy, relative advantage, complexity, computer experience, supports and time) on criterion variable (level of WBI use)? Purpose of the Study: The purpose of the study is to build a model to predict the level of diffusion and utilization of Web-Based Instruction in school. To test the model six independent variables (self-efficacy, relative advantage, complexity, computer experience, supports and time) from the three perspectives affecting the diffusion and utilization of WBI will be used. The selection of the variables is substantiated by empirical evidence from previous relevant innovation studies (Rogers, 1995; Ely, 1999). The result of this study would also be helpful to instructional designers. When it comes to successful educational program design, the consideration of the target audiences characteristics is essential to the analysis phase in most instructional design models. Because the predictor variables are susceptible to interventions such as training or staff development, the identification of the potential factors that are highly related to the integration of a new technology. Operational Definition: Predictor Variables: Six independent variables which are selected from the three perspectives affecting the diffusion and utilization of WBI. The variables are computer experience, self-efficacy, complexity, relative advantage, supports and time. Diffusion of Innovations: The adoption and utilization of Web as a teaching tool. Level of Use: Degree of integration of WBI that has been attained by teachers in order to attain existing instructional goals. Web-Based Instruction: A hypermedia-based instructional program which utilizes the attributes and resources of the World Wide Web to create a meaningful learning environment such as Blackboard and WebCT. Chapter II: Literature Review: The objective of the study is to identify factors affecting the likelihood of diffusion in educational setting is usually perceived from one of three major perspectives. The first of these is concerned with the characteristics of the adopter, such as computer experience and self-efficacy. The second perspective is focuses on the characteristics of the innovation itself. The third perspective focused on the characteristics of the environment in which the innovation is to be introduced. This approach highlights the importance of factors outside the innovation which can set the stage for its success or failure. The review will be focus on diffusion of innovation, relation to factors affecting the diffusion and implementation of Web-Based Instruction in an educational setting, informational technology diffusion models, model constructs and Web-Based Instruction (WBI). Diffusion of Innovation: Sanders and Morrison (2001) have identified three reasons why the study of diffusion theory is beneficial to the field of instructional technology. The first reason is most instructional technologists lack the knowledge of why their products are or are not adopted. They believe a study of diffusion theory could rectify this situation. Second, the field of instructional technology is often associated with the concept of innovations and they suggested that if instructional technologists understand the diffusion and diffusion of innovation theory. They will be more prepared to work effectively with potential adopters. The third reason is the studies of the diffusion theory could result in developing a systematic model of diffusion and diffusion for the instructional technology field. Everett Rogers is the most widely cited author in the area of general diffusion theory. Rogers (1995) theories form the basis of most studies related to diffusion. Rogers theories seem to be common elements of most diffusion theories. They are diffusion process, adopter categories, innovation attributes, and rate of diffusion. So the instructional technologists not only need to create well-designed products but need to ensure the diffusion of these products. The main concern of the diffusion of innovation research is how innovations are adopted and why innovations are adopted at different rates. The diffusion process outlined by Rogers (1995) has five steps knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation, and confirmation. According to this theory, potential adopters of an innovation have to learn about an innovation and are persuaded to try it out before making a decision to adopt or reject the innovation. The adopters decide to either continue using the innovation or stop using it. This theory is very important because it shows that diffusion is not a momentary irrational act, but an ongoing process that can be studied, facilitated and supported. Factors Affecting Diffusion of Innovation: The experts in diffusion of innovation find that there is no single or a certain group of factors identified to explain the lack of use of Web-Based Instruction in school education. In this section, I will explore the factors have been examined and identified from many studies. The experts in educational technology have done numerous studies to find out the factors affecting the diffusion of Web-Based Instruction in school. Morris (2001) have found that the lack of technical support, lack of adequate equipment, amount of time required, student resistance or lack of computer skills, network problems and identified lack of teachers or administrative support are the barriers that teachers confronted when incorporating Web-Based instruction. From a survey of 557 teachers, Anderson, Varnhagen and Campbell (1998) also found that although most teachers believe that learning and communications technologies are essential to improving the quality of school education, many barriers were identified to realizing that capacity. They identified nine factors as major or minor barriers. The greatest barrier identified was lack of funding. The second greatest barrier was lack of time to learn technologies. The others are classroom infrastructure, adequate computer hardware or connectivity, institutional incentives, knowledge about applying technology in teaching, access to software tools, lack of training and support, an d information about available technology. Pitman, Gosper and Rich (1999) examined teachers use of instructional technology in a school classroom. In this study, they limited instructional technology to internet-related technologies including e-mail and the World Wide Web. The study identified significant relationships between teaching style, perceived effectiveness of technology, perceived access to technology and perceived administrative support and the use of technology. Beggs (2000) have conducted the survey of 348 teachers. In this survey teachers at a school were asked about their self-perceived use of technology, factors influencing their use of technology, and barriers to the use of technology in the classroom. The factors are improved student learning, advantage over traditional teaching, equipment availability, increased student interest, ease of use, compatibility with discipline, time needed to learn, materials in discipline, compatibility with materials, training, administrative support, personal comfort and coll eague use. Rogers (2000) have conducted the study to examine barriers to technology diffusion through a structured interview conducted on the telephone or in-person. The barriers that he identified are need technical support staff, need release time and time for training, funds, and lack of sharing best practices across system. Through this through review, it seems that the factors emerge into three categories as like personal characteristics which include factors such as years of teaching, previous experience, teaching style, self-efficacy, and anxiety, innovation characteristics such as relative advantage, complexity, and compatibility, and environmental and social factors such as support and time. In the case of a factor of support, the factors like accessibility or availability, technical and administrative, workshop, and incentive may be grouped into a single factor as support. Refer to importance of considering both the person and the social environment as joint determinants of behavior, Surry and Farquhar (1997) described adopter based theories as opposite to developer-based theories. Developer-based theories are to increase diffusion by maximizing the efficiency, effectiveness and elegance of an innovation. They assume that the best way to bring about educational change is to create a system or product that is significantly superior to existing products or systems. In summary, this section focused on the studies conducted to find out the factors affecting the diffusion of instructional technology. Since these studies have not looked at the interactional effects of determinants on an adopters behavior so more attention seems to be needed on the interrelationships among identified variables. Innovation Diffusion Models: In contrast to the studies that focus on single factors or a list of factors, a few models have been developed and empirically studied to identify the interactional effects of variables on innovation usage. These models focused on the identification of the determinants of usage, such as attitudes, social influences, and facilitation conditions (Davis, Richard Paul, 1989; Mathieson, 1991). Theory of Reasoned Action: The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) was first proposed by Azjen and Fishbein (1975). The theory specified a causal relationship between individual behavioral intention and actual behavior. The components of TRA are behavioral intention, attitude, and subjective norm. TRA suggests behavioral intention depends on a persons attitude toward behavior and subjective norm. Behavioral intention measures a persons relative strength of intention to perform a behavior. Attitude is comprised of beliefs about the consequences of performing the behavior multiplied by his or her valuation of those consequences. Subjective norm is seen as a combination of perceived expectations from referent individuals or groups along with intentions to comply with these expectations. (Azjen and Fishbein, 1975). TRA became the basis for developing the following two models, Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and Technology Acceptance Model (TAM). In fact, to account for conditions where individuals do not have complete control over their behavior, TPB extended TRA. Theory of Planned Behavior: Azjen and Madden (1986) modified TRA and generated a model named the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). The only difference between the TRA and TPB is the inclusion of perceived behavioral control. Perceived behavioral control reflects a persons ability to actually perform a behavior. It is influenced by the effects facilitating conditions and self-efficacy. Hoffman and Novak (1994) included ease of access, ease of use, price, knowledge, past experience, and skill to represent the perceived behavioral control in their study of hypermedia using TPB. Each of the determinants of intention, like attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control, is determined by underlying belief structures. These are referred to as attitudinal beliefs, normative beliefs, and control beliefs which are related to attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control respectively. Technology Acceptance Model: Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) was developed by Davis (1986) and introduced by Davis, et al. (1989). This model is an adaptation of the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA). TAM contends two distinct constructs like perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use. Davis (1989) defined perceived usefulness as the degree to which an individual believes that using particular system would enhance his or her job performance and ease of use as the degree to which an individual believes that using a particular system would be free of physical and mental effort. This model is more specific and simple because it only provides two factors which are important determinants of innovation usage (Mathieson, 1991). These factors are specific, easy to understand, and can be manipulated through system design and implementation. In addition, they should also be generalizable across settings. Although it is a special case of the TRA, TAM excludes the influence of social and personal control factors on behavior, which is also identified as important factors in the previous research (Groves Zemel, 2000; Knutel, 1998). Components of the Study Model Constructs: The six predictor variables believed to be important in influencing the diffusion of innovation which has derived from the Rogers model and other relevant constructs from other models and other reviewed studies. Followed is the explanation of each of the six predictor variables and the criterion variable in more detail. Personal Characteristics: Computer Experience: Computer experience is defined as the extent to which adopters perceive previous computer experience and performance with internet connection as good. Also, it includes amounts of time using computer with internet connection in this study. The more positive experiences one has, the more confident one is in a similar innovation (Stone Henry, 2003). In other words, positive past experience with computers will increase ones confidence while negative experience will reduce it. This view is supported by Ertmer, Evenbeck, Cennamo and Lehman (1994), who found that although positive computer experience increased computer confidence, the actual amount of experience was not correlated with the confidence beliefs of students. This suggests that it is the quality, not the quantity, of experience is a critical factor in determining self-efficacy beliefs, which is one of the most important and popular variables in the diffusion and utilization of innovations studies. There have been numerous studies involving the experience and attitude-behavior relationship (Anderson, Varnhagen, Campbell, 1998; Christoph, Schoenfeld, Tansky, 1998; Daugherty Funke, 1998; Ellsworth, 1998; Groves Zemel, 2000; Hill, Stone Henry, 2003; Kao, Wedman, Placier, 1995). Bandura (1977) suggests that experience is likely to reduce anxieties and induce individuals to change their behavior. The information gained by performance accomplishments provides the most influential source of efficacy information (Bandura, Adams, Beyer, 1977 and Zimmerman, 2000). Hill, Smith, Mann (1987) provide evidence that experience with computer technology lead to a higher likelihood of technology adoption through changes in perceived self-efficacy. Self-efficacy: Self-efficacy, a key element in Banduras social learning theory (1977), refers to ones belief in ones capability to use Internet in this study. Self-efficacy has been found to influence the decision to use computers (Hill, Smith and Mann, 1987). Bandura (1997) defined perceived self-efficacy as personal judgments of ones capabilities to organize and execute subjects of action to attain designated goals, and he sought to assess its level, generality and strength across activities and contexts. Zhang and Espinoza (1998) found that comfort or anxiety about computers perceived by students predicted their confidence levels about computers and the confidence level is a significant predictor in deciding their desirability of learning technology skills. In addition, from the findings in his qualitative study Zollinhofer (1998) supported that teachers who have low self-efficacy are susceptible to cyber anxiety which can increase resistance to learning new technologies. According to Banduras (1977) self-efficacy theory, judgments of self-efficacy are based on several kinds of information including performance accomplishments, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, and emotional arousal. Venkatesh and Davis (1994) theorize that perceptions about a new systems usefulness and a new systems ease of use influences and are anchored on an individuals general computer self-efficacy. From this evidence, it can be hypothesized that self-efficacy influences perceived relative advantage and ease of use of innovation, and also influences utilization of an innovation through those two intervening variables. Perceived attributes of innovation: Rogers (1995), Wolfe (1994), and Farguhar and Surry (1994) identified perceived by potential adopters, relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and observability as five main attributes of an innovation as important factors in determining the rate of diffusion. According to Rogers theory, potential adopters of an innovation have to learn about an innovation and are persuaded to try it out before making a decision to adopt or reject the innovation. This five attributes are frequently cited as playing a key role in the perceptions of adopters in regard to the implementation of instructional innovations. For this study, although perceived attributes compatibility, observability and trialability could contribute to some extent in diffusion process but only relative advantage and complexity which distinguished by Vinson (1996) and Moskal, Martin, and Foshee (1997) are included. This is because they have the strongest influence from Rogers five attributes. Relative Advantage: Relative advantage is defined as the degree to which an innovation of WBI as an instructional technology in this study is perceived as being better than the technology it supersedes and other solutions being considered (Rogers, 1995). The degree of relative advantage is often expressed as economic profitability, social prestige, or other benefits. The degree of use is expected to be increased by the teacherss perceived relative advantage of WBI. Rogers generalized from previous research that the relative advantage of an innovation, as perceived by members of a social system, is positively related to its rate of diffusion. In their study, Venkatesh and Davis (1994) tested the effect of self-efficacy on the perceived ease of use construct using two different information technologies, E-mail and Gopher. They found that the perceptions about a new systems ease of use are anchored on a persons general computer self-efficacy. Complexity: Complexity is defined as the degree to which the WBI as an instructional technology is perceived as difficult to understand and use (Rogers, 1995). It is similar to the ease of use construct used by Davis, Bagozzi, Warshaw (1989). They define it as the degree to which an individual believes that using a particular system would be free of physical and mental effort. In their study they find a positive correlation between perceived ease of use and behavioral intentions. They found ease of use to be a strong determinant of use. It is expected that the more complex WBI appears to teachers, the less they will use it. An innovation which is perceived as being difficult to use will meet with greater resistance to its use and diffusion than those which are considered as easy to learn. Hence, another generalization drawn by Rogers was that the complexity of an innovation, as perceived by members of a social system, is negatively related to its rate of diffusion. Then, who perceives an innovation as being more or less difficult? The findings (Ghaith Yaghi, 1997; Guskey, 1988) indicate that more efficacious teachers considered an innovation as less difficult to implement. Perception of influence and support from the environment: Groves and Zemel (2000) from their study has been identified that environment as a category of influencing factors on diffusion and utilization of innovation. Ely (1999) proposed eight environmental condition dissatisfaction with the status quo, existence of knowledge and skills, availability of resources, availability of time, existence of rewards or incentives for participation, expectation and encouragement of participation, commitment by stakeholders involved, and evidence of leadership. A few studies have been conducted to determine the best predictors among the eight conditions using stepwise multiple regression analysis. Ravitz (1999) found out availability of resources, availability of time, existence of rewards or incentives, commitment, and leadership are the most important determinants related to the implementation of innovation. In another pure survey study, Daugherty and Flunke (1998) reported the barriers confronted by teachers when incorporating Web-Based instruction a re lack of technical support, lack of software or adequate equipment; amount of time required and lack of teachers or administrative support. From reviewing the related studies, supports and time were selected as key variables for this study. Supports: Groves Zemel (2000) found out that the supports like training available on how to use, information or materials available, and administrative support were rated as very important factors influencing use of instructional technologies in teaching. Morris (2001) found out that lack of technical support, lack of adequate equipment or software, and lack of teachers or administrative support are the barriers teachers confronted when incorporating distance education. Farquhar and Surry (1994) proposed organizational factors with the adopters individual factors as influential factors which affect the diffusion and utilization of the instructional product. They asserted that inappropriate environmental support can often be an important hindrance factor of successful innovation diffusion. The teachers training and other resources to use and learn the WBI technology can be effective and productive by lessen teachers perceived level of complexity to use or learn WBI as an instructional technology. Time: Seminoff and Wepner (1997) discovered that of the 77 respondents in their study on instructional-based projects, 64% indicated that release time for preparation of technology-based projects was not being provided. In the survey study about factors influencing the use of technology and perceived barriers to use of technology, Groves Zemel (2000) found that teachers perceived time needed to learn as an important factor in influencing use of technology. Plater (1995) indicates that managing teachers time is the single most important asset of the school. In the past teachers had only a few time-related issues, including meeting classes, keeping office hours, and attending teachers meetings. Plater goes on to say that schools must recognize teachers time as valuable resource and begin to think about departmental needs and prepare individual teachers to meet these needs. While teachers training should be part of the overall preparation for WBI, teachers training can only be effective and productive if there is adequate preparation time to incorporate what has been learned in training. In the present study time is defined as perceived available time needed to learn and use WBI as an instructional technology. The more available time teachers perceive, the less complex they perceive to learn and use WBI as an instructional technology. Level of Use: Level of using Web-Based Instruction is a dependent variable for this study. Moersch (1995) proposed a conceptual framework that measures levels of technology use. In this framework, seven distinguished implementation levels teachers can demonstrate. According to Moersch (1995), as a teacher progresses from one level to the next, a series of changes to the instructional curriculum is observed. The instructional focus shifts from being teacher-centered to being learner-centered. Computer technology is used as a tool that supports and extends students understanding of the pertinent concepts, processes and themes involved when using databases, telecommunications, multimedia, spreadsheets, and graphing applications. Traditional verbal activities are gradually replaced by authentic hands-on inquiry related to a problem issue or theme. Heavy reliance on textbook and sequential instructional materials is replaced by use of extensive and diversified resources determined by the problem areas under discussion. Traditional evaluation practices are supplanted by multiple assessment strategies that utilize portfolios, open-ended questions, self-analysis, and peer review. To measure the level of innovation use, in addition to above levels of innovation use which are used to measure the degree to which an adopter integrates the innovation into practice, a number of studies (Cartas, 1998; Lin Jeffres, 1998; Jaber, 1997; Wallace, 1998) in the studies of diffusion and utilization of instructional technologies have used three different categories of questions to measure the usage level the frequency of technology use, the amount of hours in using a technology and the number of programs or functions used. Since it seemed that levels of use studies (Moersch, 1995; Reiber Welliver, 1989) dealt with questions pertaining to the specific aspects of computer technologies to measure the levels of technology, the present study created the questions including the three categories of questions pertaining to WBI use. Web-Based Instruction (WBI): WBI is defined as an innovative approach for delivering instruction to a remote audience using the World Wide Web as the instructional delivery system (Khan, 1997). Web-Based learning environments use the resources of the Web to create a context in which learning is supported and fostered. Web-Based Instruction is growing faster than any other instructional technology (Crossman, 1997). More and more school teachers are using WBI as an integral part of instructional activities. School cannot work in isolation and must respond to societal change (Innovation in Distance Education (IDE), 1997). WBI offers medium for school education to accommodate the information age and a networked worl

Unit 20: Promoting Health Education- P1

Unit 20: Promoting Health Education- P1 In this unit I am going to explain three different approaches to promoting Health Education the three approaches I am going to explain are Mass Media, Community development and Two way Communication. The first approach to promoting Heath Education is Mass Media. -Mass media-any written, printed, visual, electronic, auto-visual media developed to reach mass audience and the public. -Audience segmentation-division of a population into a more homogenous groups based on similarities in attitudes, beliefs and knowledge. This allows greater impact of the message. It is used mainly in promoting Health Education to raise public awareness about a particular problem or issue, Stress the ill-effects of unhealthy behavior and the benefits of preventive behavior. Mass Media can be found anywhere and everywhere. Just a few of the many different types of Media are, Television, Radio, billboards, Posters. There have been many different effective National health campaigns such as: Physical activity, diet, smoking, heart disease, sexually transmitted infections and mental health. There are many different ways of approaching promoting health education such as, planned campaigns and advertising. This has the advantage of targeting a wide target audience and may be tailored to meet specific objectives. Unpaid publicity, this may be low cost campaigns that may seem to provide greater credibility to the target audience. Mass media can use many different approaches to promoting health education. Some of the ways you could promote health education is fear, some campaigns use fear to get the message across and for it to have effect such as, smoking and the effects such as cancer. An Example of a mass media campaign used to promote health education is the NHS Anti-smoking campaign that featured a number of media approaches such as very graphic posters and television advertisements such as The ‘I’d do anything’ advertisement. These types of advertisements are designed to motivate smokers to quit and by featuring the children of smokers singing â€Å"I’d do anything† from the musical Oliver with the endline: â€Å"Your kids would do anything for you. Why don’t you stop smoking for them? I think that this type of approach would have a very positive outcome with a number of people giving up smoking, The outcomes from this NHS campaign would be measured by Engagement and response, Daily/weekly call figures, Number of NHS Quit Kits ordered and Web stats – unique visits, time spent on site, number of page views Another mass media approach would involve health educators working to encourage healthy lifestyles and wellbe ing by educating individuals and communities. They create awareness on subjects that can prevent diseases, injuries, and other health problems. Health educators attempt to prevent illnesses by informing individuals and communities about health-related topics, such as proper nutrition, the importance of exercise, how to avoid sexually transmitted diseases, and the habits and behaviours necessary to avoid illness. The advantages of using mass media to promote health education are that you can raise important issues and create awareness about them. Mass media is also a good way to get people thinking about and discussing the issues, it is also a good way of reaching a large audience and a scatter gun approach can be used. On the other hand there are a few disadvantages of using mass media to promote heath education, such as cost effectiveness. Mass media can be very cost effective and have high costs such as advertising. A Scatter gun approach and it may not be as effective as a direct approach. Sometimes you cannot tell who the message is coming from and it is only one way communication. You also can’t see the outcomes or tell if it has been effective for a very long time. Overall I believe that the use of mass media in health promotion is widely used. It can be used locally, regionally and internationally. But the outcomes of some mass media campaigns are yet to be realized and to be proven as successful or unsuccessful. Mass media is one of the main approaches used in health promotion and its lack of success may be due to its oversimplification or segmented view of health and well-being. The second approach to promoting Heath Education is Community development. -The process whereby people who are marginalized or living in poverty work together to identify their needs, create change, exert more influence in the decisions which affect their lives and work to improve the quality of their lives, the communities in which they live, and the society of which they are part. Community development involves changing the relationships between ordinary people and people in positions of power, so that everyone can take part in the issues that affect their lives. It starts from the principle that within any community there is a wealth of knowledge and experience which, if used in creative ways, can be channeled into collective action to achieve the communities' desired goals. Community development is used to promote health education because the problems can be directly targeted and hit. Community development is used to target issues such as environment issues, housing, crime, pollution, support and isolation. By improving these issues you can improve the health issues that have become a consequence, Such as smoking, alcohol, drugs, stress, exercise and crime. See diagram below: A further approach to community development could involve a multiagency approach. The multiagency approach could involve the Government, local authorities, health trusts, the police, schools and other agencies all co-operating to achieve one outcome within a community. You can promote heath education by targeting an individual group such as children, young people, families and the elderly. It would involve the entire agency’s working together effectively, putting children, young people and their families at the centre of decision making in order to meet their needs and improve their lives. An example of using community development to promote health education could involve starting a group meeting in a local community centre and doing sport activities. Or the local council providing free health facilities for the community such as Hall Classes that could vary from aerobic sessions or keep fit sessions that could involve using the wide range of equipment available at all the sports centers throughout the borough. The session aims could be to develop fitness, weight control, balance, and coordination, fun and group interaction. There are many advantages of using community development to promote health education such as working to improve people’s living environment. Providing a joint effort that brings the community together. It can also improve self esteem and make people have a â€Å"can do† attitude and empowers the community. It is also effective because it can be done on an effective small scale. I. e. 1-1 or 1-10 and you can be given the feedback automatically. Another benefit may be that it is not cost effective because you could use resources from the mass media such as: leaflets, posters or videos. On the other hand the disadvantages of using community development to promote health education are having to have a number of people that are committed for it to have an effect, and some people within the community may have a negative attitude and feel as if change is not possible. Others may depend on other people to fix the issues and you may not be able to evaluate the outcomes to see the effectiveness. Another problem may be that the message may not reach everybody within the community or people may hold back on their feelings or opinions. Overall I believe that Community development is an effective way of promoting health education because it can be used within a community to target a specific area or health problem that may need attention, such as poor housing. I believe that by addressing the main problems you can also target the health problems that have become a result of this. The final approach to promoting health education is two-way communication. -Two-way communication uses communication to negotiate with publics, resolve conflict, and promote mutual understanding. Two way communication is used to in promoting health education mainly to discuss health issues that may affect certain individuals. Two way communication involves one person having a thought then sending that message to the person who is concerned. The receiver then processes the message and gives the feedback. This cycle continues until a positive outcome has been achieved. Two way communication works by only addressing it to a certain individual whom it may concern such as a doctor to a patient. Its effectiveness depends on the way it is addressed to the receiver because people with different ages may need to be spoken to differently such as a young child would be spoken to in a different tone of voice or manner compared to an adult. Two way communication is used to promote health and social care in many different ways. It involves basic talking and listening, this can be a very effective simple way of making a positive change. Body language can also contribute to the outcomes of health promotion because if the health promoter shows open, positive body language and shows interest in the feedback they are receiving. This will show a positive attitude and may have a positive effect because the person who it concerns will feel supported. Two way communication could also be used in the form of leaflets, letters or posters detailing some basic information about the health promotion. Two way communication can also be used to promote health education presented as E-communication by using Email, Facebook and Video. An example of using two way communication to promote health education could involve Voluntary Organizations promoting a health message within a school such as an anti-drugs campaign. The Public Health Agency run an anti drugs campaign called ‘Your body, your life, your choice' this campaign was acknowledged that young people had to make up their own minds about drug use. The campaign works to provide young people with accurate information on the dangers of drugs, and to influence the attitudes of young people so that they are prepared and taught not to experiment with drugs. The target audiences for this campaign are 10-13 year olds and 14-17 year olds and parents. There are many advantages of using two way communication to promote health education. An advantage of using two way communication is that it can be used on a very cheap, small scale basis such as a 1-1 or a 1-10, you can also be given direct feedback. Sensitive issues can also be discussed between two people. I also think that it is an advantage that the target audience can be chosen to meet the specific health promotion needs, such as aiming an anti-cannabis campaign at 16-19 year olds. On the other hand I think that the disadvantages would be that it may not have the same effectiveness as the mass media approach because it is only being used on a small scale. I also feel that it is very limited at what health promotions can be used for what audience. Another disadvantage is that I feel that it would be hard to stress the delayed gratifications to the audience and I think that people would rather choose the instant gratifications. Overall I think that using two way communication to promote health education is a good idea because it can be used on a small scale and private, sensitive issues can be discussed. I also think that it is a good effective way of promoting health education because the issues can be targeted and hit where it will make the biggest impact such as in schools. On the other hand I think that this way of promoting health education may not be as effective as the mass media approach because the mass media approach can reach a wider audience. Health Promoters Health promoters work to promote a positive attitude about keeping healthy, living a healthy lifestyle, preventing illness, and preventing any existing illness from becoming worse. Health promotion covers many different health issues such as diet, obesity, smoking, exercise, alcohol, preventing heart disease, cervical screening, breast screening, sun and health ect. Health promoters can be found both local and nationally an example of a local health promotion is Refresh Free leisure, Anyone who lives, works, is in full time education or whose GP practice is in Blackburn with Darwen qualifies for free leisure. This campaign depends on the use of mass media, two way communication and community development. An example of a national health campaign is the NHS Anti smoking campaign, this is a national campaign because it was used across the country and across Ireland and Scotland. This campaign mostly depended on the use of mass media but also used two way communication and community development to create a more effective outcome. An example of a international Health promoter is, The World Health Organization (WHO) this health promoter is the coordinating authority for health within the United Nations system. It is responsible for providing leadership on global health matters, shaping the health research agenda, setting norms and standards, and monitoring and assessing health trends.